Ancient beliefs and religious practices during Roman domination
Ancient religious beliefs and practices continued during Roman domination, although in many places they were already influenced by the implantation of Greco-Latin culture. Vasconian augural practices became so famous that they were renowned throughout the Empire. Aelius Lampridius, in his Vita Alexandri Severi, says of the emperor:
“…haruspicinae quoque peritissimus fuit, ornithoscopos magnus, ut et Vascones Hispa(n)orum et Pannoriorum augures vicerit.”
(Aelius Lampridius, Vita Alexandri Severi, 27, 3)
“…he was also very learned in augury, a great haruspex, to such an extent that he surpassed the Vasconian augurs of Hispania and of Pannonia.”
The practice of augural prediction existed among many peoples of the world, both before and after the Roman occupation.
Strabo’s assertion that peoples neighboring the Celtiberians, toward the north, worshipped an unnamed god during nights of the full moon has led to the attribution of such practices to the Basques. The Roncalese call the moon Goikoa (“the one above”), an indirect designation that suggests a vocabulary taboo. Its other name, illargi (“light of the dead”), also seems to lead to the same conclusion. The Roncalese form, moreover, resembles the current name of God, Jaungoikoa, which we know for the first time from a medieval inscription. These full-moon festivals, held at the doors of houses, consisted mainly of gymnastic dances with religious and aesthetic meaning: “The Celtiberians and their neighbors to the north worship an unnamed God on the nights of the full moon outside their settlements, performing circular dances and nocturnal festivities with their families” (Strabo, Geography, III, 4, 16).
The name for Sunday, igandea (from igan, “to rise”?), may in this pre-Christian period have meant “the feast,” that is, the full moon. The names of Thursday and Friday, ortzegun and ortzirala, allude to Urtzi (“the Celestial One”), another indirect way of referring to God. By contrast, the name of Saturday, neskaneguna and larunbata, would seem to refer to a day dedicated to girls or companions (from neska = girl and lagun = companion), although it is also possible to interpret neskan- as (azken), “last.”
Our poet Aurelius Prudentius alludes to the sacrifices of the Vascones:
“Iamne credis, bruta quondam Vasconum gentilitas,
quam sacrum credulis error inmolarit sanguinem?
Credis in Deum relatos iorum spiritus?
Cerne, quam palam feroces hic domantur daemones,
qui lupino rapta rictu devorant praecordia,
strangulant mentes et ipsas seque miscent sensibus.”
(Prudentius, Peristephanon, 94–98)
“Do you now believe, O Vasconian people, once so rude, how much sacred blood cruel error has spilled? Do you believe that the spirits of the victims were returned to God? Observe how openly the fierce demons are here subdued, who devour with wolfish greed the hearts they have managed to seize, strangling the very souls and mingling themselves with the senses.”
During the Roman occupation, religious cult followed the same course as other sociocultural factors. Roman elements were inserted into the Basque religious world, supplanting older beliefs and cults to the same degree that general Romanization was implemented. For this reason, religious testimonies—epitaphs, statuettes, mosaics, etc.—have been found in the lowlands of Álava and Navarre, and sporadically in Bizkaia. Juan Carlos Elorza, who has studied this subject in detail, lists a significant number of bronze statuettes and mosaics and counts more than eighty decorated stelae. Among the sculptures found are some identified as Ceres (that of Iruña, by Hübner), another bronze figure from Pamplona (studied by Altadill), and a fragment found in Sangüesa identified as a figure of Artemis. These identifications would need careful reexamination. Among the bronze statuettes there are up to eight pieces, but Elorza considers two of them of special interest: the Mercury from Pamplona and the Isis-Fortuna from Fórua (Bizkaia). As for the mosaics, he draws particular attention to one from Pamplona, dating to the second century, which represents the struggle Theseus and the Minotaur, and to a mosaic pavement discovered at Cabriana (Álava) by Prestamero, depicting Diana the Huntress. With evident insight, this author classifies the divinities referred to in the aforementioned archaeological finds into three groups:
-
Divinities with universal cult and name throughout the Empire.
-
Divinities with local names and epithets, but universal cult.
-
Divinities with local name and local cult.
Following this classification, and eliminating illegible inscriptions, a total of twenty-five perfectly legible examples remain, distributed accordingly by Elorza.
Divinities of universal cult and name
Jupiter: Aibar, Eslava, and Ujué (Navarre); Saraso (Álava)
Jupiter Apenninus: Arellano (Navarre)
Hermes: Saraso (Álava)
Mars: Monteagudo (Navarre)
Minerva: Payueta (Álava)
Nymphs: Leire (Navarre), Araya (Álava)
Nymphs and Lares: Cabriana (Álava)
Tutela: Iruña (Álava)
Lares Quadrivii: Laguardia (Álava)
Lares Viales: San Pelayo (Álava)
Chronologically, Elorza groups them as follows: the Jupiter inscription from Ujué belongs to the Augustan period; those of Hermes from Saraso and Tutela from Iruña to the Flavian period; Jupiter from Aibar and the Nymphs from Leire to the Severan period; Jupiter Apenninus from Arellano to the second half of the third century; Jupiter from Eslava, Mars from Monteagudo, and the Nymphs and Lares from Cabriana to the same general horizon; the Lares Viales from San Pelayo to the late fourth or early fifth century; and the Lares Quadrivii from Laguardia to the second half of the fourth century.
Inscriptions
JUPITER. Iovi O(ptimo) M(aximo) L(ucius) Sempronius Geminus l(ibens) p(osuit); Iovi Optimo Max(imo) Flav(us) lib(ens) per(fecit): Eslava; Aibar.
(F)lavos Iov(i) Optumo (Maximo): Saraso.
Coleli(us) Tesphoros et Festa et Telesinus Iovi sacrum: Ujué.
MARS. Marti invicto Status Arquio v(otum) s(olvit) l(ibens) m(erito): Monteagudo.
NYMPHS. Capito ar(am) Nyn(ph)is (po)suit (l)ibens merito: Araya.
Nynph(is) bonis et Locos: Cabriana.
Quintus Licinius (L?)uscus aquilegus Vareiensis Nimpis vibens m(erito) v(otum) s(olvit): Leire.
TUTELA. Tutelae sac(crum) (ha)ered(es) T(iti) Plamin(i) p(osuerunt).
LARES. Segilus et Rusticius f(ilius) Laribus Q(uadri)u(iis) pro salute v(otum) s(olverunt) l(ibens) m(erito).
Divinities of universal cult and local name
There are two, of Celtic appearance, since the cult of the Matres is well known among that people, and the second bears the epithet Sustatiense. These are:
Matres Useae: Laguardia (Álava), possibly fourth century.
Genius Sustatiense: Angostina (Álava), possibly second century.
These epithets could be Basque but also Celtic. This depends on whether Useae can be related to the Basque uso (“dove”), usi (“wooded area”), or usa (“common mountain land”). In Ujué (Navarre) there is a Virgin of Ujué or Usue, meaning “Virgin of the Dove,” which would indicate a protective deity. The Sustatiense of the second divinity seems to allude to the ancient name of present-day Zuazu (Álava), which in turn relates to the Suessiones, one of whose groups lived near Sos (Sause). In any case, these divinities are linked to the idea of fertility and protection, which also appears in early Basque mythology.
Inscription: Matribus Useis Pom(peia) P(rimitiva).
Possibly related to the deity Mater Deva, divinizing the waters of that river.
Divinities of local name and cult
The seven studied by Elorza are:
Aituneo: Araya (Álava), near the Ziraunza River.
Baelisto: Angostina (Álava), second century.
Lacubegi: Ujué (Navarre), second century.
Liucma: Comunión (Álava), second half of the fourth century.
Sandao Vimumburu: Arciniega (Álava).
Vvarna: Cabriana (Álava).
Peremusta: Eslava and Rocaforte (Navarre).
The Eslava inscription dates to the fourth century. Elorza analyzes the name Aituneo, noting the Basque words aita (“father”) and egun/eun (“day”). A literal interpretation might suggest “Father of the day” = “Sun,” but Basque syntax would invert the meaning to “day of the father.” If instead egun is replaced by une (“place,” “space,” “interval”), the meaning would be “place of the father.” It is preferable, however, to think of aitun (“grandfather”) and Deo (“god”), or simply a suffix of uncertain value. This interpretation is reinforced by the fact that in Basque mythology the sun and the moon are addressed with the epithet amandria (“grandmother,” feminine). Aituneo would thus be a masculine “father god.”
The name Baelisto has been connected to the Indo-European root bhel (“bright”) plus the Illyrian superlative suffix -sto, suggesting a solar deity. However, a Basque interpretation may be more compelling. The root Belts, often identified with modern beltz (“black”), appears in the Aquitanian deity Aherbelst (“black he-goat”). Similar elements are found in Iberian alphabetic texts with clear affinities to Basque lexicon: Beles, Belenes, Belenos, Ordumeles (Ordun-beles), Adimels.
Inscription: Flavos (Andio)nis f(ilius) Baelisto v(otum) s(olvit) l(ibens) m(erito): Angostina.
Lacubegi or Lacubex presents similar problems. A Celtic interpretation would require a dative form leading to a nominative Lacubex, from Indo-European lacu and bheg (“to break”), yielding an aquatic deity—rather forced. In Basque, lako is a roof channel for rainwater, any kind of conduit, a winepress, and in some areas limestone; begi means “eye,” “care,” or “bud/shoot of a plant.”
Inscription: Coeli(us?) Tesphoros et Festa et Telesinus Lacubegi ex voto: Ujué.
Liucma seems to derive from leuk- with a suffix; -na (“river source”) would be acceptable in Indo-European, according to Elorza, meaning “the white one,” “the luminous one.”
Sandao Vimumburu appears to be an aquatic deity related to the hydronym Sanda, interpretable either as Indo-European or Basque. The river Sanda or Sanga is already mentioned by Pliny among the Cantabrians or nearby peoples. Vimumburu may be Basque, with the ending -buru (“head,” “summit”); cf. Iberian Sosin-Biuru.
Vvarna, a healing deity, likely refers to a spring or thermal source. From vb (ur, ub- “water”). Literally in Basque it means “underground water.”
Inscription: Uvarnae pro salute Estiteri fabri tigno(r)um Antonius Flavos Neviensis v(otum) s(olvit) l(ibens) m(erito): Cabriana.
Peremusta appears at Eslava accompanied by the adjectives Deo Magno and seems to be related, in the author’s view, to another inscription from Rocaforte where only the initials D. M. P. (“Deo Magno Peremustae”) appear.
Other divinities of local name and cult with unknown meaning include:
Helasse: Miñano Menor (Álava).
Ivilia: Fórua (Bizkaia), second half of the second century.
Losa: Lerate (Navarre), second half of the fourth century.
Loxa: Arquiñariz (Navarre).
Selatse (three times): Barbarín (Navarre), Augustan period.
Tullonio: Alegría (Álava).
Helasse and Selatse appear to be the same deity and likely aquatic, given the component -lats, -lass, today lats (“stream,” “water hole on a riverbank”).
Inscriptions:
Sempronius Betunus Selats(a)e v(otum) s(olvit) l(ibens) m(erito).
I(udius) Germanus Selats(a)e v(otum) s(olvit) l(ibens) m(erito).
Asclepius Paternus S(elatsae) v(otum) s(olvit) l(ibens) m(erito).
Ivilia is undoubtedly related to Abelion or “good Abel.” It is the name of a medicinal spring. The connection with water seems clear, since ibi in Basque also means a river ford.
Inscription: Iuliae sacrum M. Caecilius Montanus pro salute Fusci fili posuit. Quno fecit.
Losa, Loxa. This name has been identified with the toponym Losa (Valle de Losa), although the stelae were found in Navarre, not Álava.
Inscriptions:
Aemilia Paterna Losae v(otum) s(olvit) l(ibens) m(erito): Lerate.
Lucretius Proculus Loxae v(otum) s(olvit) l(ibens) m(erito): Arquiñariz.
If Loxae is interpreted through Basque, one might think of lotsa (“shame,” “fear”), suggesting a personification comparable to Pudicitia or Timor (cf. Michelena, Religiones primitivas de Hispania, Zephyrus, XII, 1961).
Tullonio.
Inscription: S(empronius) Sever(us) Tullonio v(otum) s(olvit) l(ibens) m(erito).
One should add the indigenous deity Ubeltesonis? from the well-known rustic stele of Andre-Arriaga (Oiartzun), perhaps related to Aquitanian deities.
All these divinities should be integrated into a broader ensemble including those of the Aquitanian region, where deities of distinctly Basque character abound. Indeed, apart from those of universal and Latin flavor—such as Hercules-Tol-Andos, Hercules-Illun-Andos, Fontes, Fagus—the others are found in a compact zone the Garonne and the Pyrenees, bearing witness to a large Basque-speaking people later Romanized and culturally alienated.
Of the 205 theonyms studied by Gorrochategui (1984), the following may be cited: Aberri deo, Aherbelste deo, Ar deo, Andei deae, Andosso (Bascei) deo, Arardo daeo, Arthe deo, Arixo deo, Arixoni Marti Rix deo, Arpenino deo, Artahe deo, Artehe deo, Arte, Astoilvnno, Axoniebus dibus, Baeserte deo, Baiase, Baicoriso deo, Baicorrixo deo, Bascei (Andosso) deo, Beisirisse (I. O. M.), Belgoni deo, Belisamae (Minervae), Bocco (Harausoni), Eberri deo, Edelati deo, Ele deo, Erdae, Erditse deo, Erriape deo, Garre deo, Haloassi, Haravsoni (Bocco), Helasse, Heravscorritsehe fano, Horolati, Idiatte deo, Ilixoni deo, Iluvni, Ilvroni deo, Ilvrberrixo, Ilvmberi, Iscitto deo, Isornavsi deo?, Lahe deae, Larrasoni, Leheren deo, Lvurgorr, Selatse, Svhvgio deo, Arsoni deo.
The temple of Venus Marina, at Cape Higuer. A description of the coast of the Bay of Biscay from the 6th century AD tells us of three temples dedicated to Venus, the goddess of the sea, who was called Aphrodite in Greek. The first of these, as Schulten points out, is a cape of Venus, at the beginning of the northern coast, where the coast turns westward. Mr Schulten was in Hondarribia carrying out excavations at Cape Higuer, assisted by Mr Serapio Múgica and Messrs Olagüe and Izaguirre. They located the remains of a temple dedicated to San Telmo, patron saint of sailors, and beneath it the charred remains of the old pagan temple. However, the dedication to Santa Marina is linked to traditional Basque mythology.
Worship of Epona in Marquínez (Álava). In a cave in Marquínez (Álava), in the foothills of the Izkiz mountain range, surrounded by artificial caves, there is a bas-relief carved into the rock depicting a man in a supplicatory pose before what is believed to be the goddess Epona on her horse. Figures of the goddess have been preserved in more than 120 monuments in Gaul, Germania, Britannia, etc. She is usually depicted in three ways: standing, seated, and on horseback. The one in Marquínez is on horseback. Of course, her original meaning has been forgotten, and she has come to be considered the goddess of horses, which is why her image appears in stables.