The Franco-Prussian War can serve as a reference for the beginning of the era of imperialism. At this time, expansionism acquires its greatest aggressiveness, supported by the mentality of superiority of Western civilization and the attempt to satisfy the political-economic interests of the Western powers, in full expansion.
Africa occupied the main place in this new expansion process, and by the Berlin Conference (1884-1885) practically all of its coasts were distributed among the European powers. This conference sought to reach free trade agreements, secure trade routes and avoid future conflicts. In successive partition treaties starting from the conference, Africa was divided Great Britain, France, Germany, Portugal, Belgium, Spain or Italy, configuring the current artificial state borders, which implied, among others, the separation of certain ethnic groups several metropolises due to the tribal structure, so different from the European concept of territorial possession. The rapid appearance of these large spaces, of colonies with territories and populations much larger than those of the metropolises, led the Western powers to try to ensure that the maintenance of the colonies and the work of "civilization" did not cost too much. to their coffers.
The solution was found in private capital, which set its eyes on places with immediate riches (diamond, gold and copper mines). Thus, large concessionaire companies entered the scene in exchange for continuing the exploration of the territories, the creation and maintenance of infrastructure, and the exploitation and administration of the territories.
These companies (mainly English, German or French) acted with all their ferocity on the indigenous populations, seeking simple economic exploitation, and generally ed no interest in creating new infrastructures, schools, or hospitals. The companies were replaced at the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century by State control, leaving only commercial companies without privileges. Greater state control allowed the consolidation of colonial institutions.
In the colonization of Africa, differences occurred again depending on the areas and the dominating power. The tribal structures and the large number of existing ethnic groups must be taken into account, as well as the lack of a common cultural substrate and the lack of powers of a certain antiquity. For this reason, in some cases the leaders of the colonies had numerous powers, powers that were not contemplated in the metropolises themselves (Congo, India or the Dutch Indies), and in other cases the local authorities retained some power (Morocco, Algeria,. ..).
Belgium took over direct control of the Congo in 1908, occupying positions of responsibility with Belgians. Britain frequently applied indirect administration, respecting local chiefs and in turn training suitable minorities to hold office. France tended to integrate the colonies into the metropolis and also trained minorities suitable to hold the positions of Europeans in the colonies.
Already in the 20th century, notable differences can be seen in the evolution of the great colonizing powers. Portugal retained some centers in Asia (Goa, Diu, part of Timor and Macau), and in Africa it retained the territories of Angola and Mozambique, as well as Guinea and Cape Verde. Spain had been reduced, after losing Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Philippines, preserving only some remains of its Empire in Africa (Río de Oro and the islands of Fernando Poo and Annobón and Guinea).
Faced with the traditional colonizing powers, already in decline, others were in full swing. Holland retained all its possessions in Asia (Dutch Indies) and the Antillean Islands and Dutch Guiana. In the 19th century, France gained numerous territories in Africa and Indochina. Great Britain maintained all the territories of previous times, although with great growth also in Africa. Germany emerged as a colonial power in the second half of the 19th century with its territories in Africa (Cameroon, German East Africa, German Southwest Africa) and Oceania (Nauru, northeastern New Guinea, Bismarck Islands, northern Solomon Islands, Marshall Islands and Western Samoa ), although after the First World War he lost them. Another new power was Belgium, which took over the Congo and Ruanda-Urundi. Italy acquired possessions in Africa (Libya, Eritrea and Somalia), Japan owned several islands such as Taiwan, the Kuriles, and territories such as Korea and Manchuria, and the United States acquired the Hawaiian Islands, Puerto Rico, the Philippines and Guam.