Protohistory (from 2000 to 56 BC) is the period in which our civilisation, unaware of writing, was nevertheless contemporary with other peoples who did know it. It also corresponds to the Metal Age: copper, bronze and iron gradually replaced stone in the manufacture of tools. There are numerous vestiges of this period. They consist mainly of funerary monuments and fortified camps. As the civilisation of this time was agro-pastoral and its main characteristic was transhumance, most of these vestiges are found on the paths used by shepherds. However, this period also saw the first waves of Indo-European peoples advancing and submerging the peoples of Europe, among whom the Basques were probably one of the last survivors. The use of copper came from southern Spain, followed by bronze and, undoubtedly, dolmens. Later, the Celts introduced the use of iron and the practice of cremating the dead, which replaced burial. With these invasions, agriculture underwent considerable development due to the introduction of new seeds, the use of the wheel and the iron plough.
The funerary monuments of this period are, first and foremost, dolmens, which already appeared in the Neolithic period. Of a total of 104 dolmens recorded in the Northern Basque Country, only 8 are found in Zuberoa, including those of Ithé in Aussurucq, in the Arbailles forest, and those of Bagargi in Larrau, in the Irati forest. This scarcity of dolmens may be indicative of a certain imperviousness to new fashions. Dolmens are sometimes covered with a mound of earth or stones; the burial mound is often surrounded by a circle of stones stuck in the ground, known as a peristalite. The existence of these funerary monuments indicates a belief in an afterlife, in a future life, and their orientation towards the east undoubtedly indicates sun worship. Research by D. Ebrard and P. Bouchet s that the dolmens of Ithé were built in the Neolithic period and reused in the Copper and Bronze Ages.
At the end of the Bronze Age, we see various population movements. The Celts spread throughout Europe and their influence was felt as far as the Pyrenees. New customs were established: cremation of the dead, burial mounds and cromlechs, and iron metallurgy. Burial mounds are hills sometimes surrounded by standing stones. Like dolmens, they are generally located on transhumance routes. Cromlechs or ‘baratz’ are circles of stones 4 to 10 metres in diameter, sometimes surrounding a burial mound. They are abundant in Zuberoa in the higher pasture areas. In the centre of these monuments, we find a kind of stone urn containing the ashes from the cremation of the dead. These rites reveal new religious beliefs.
The oldest documents attesting to human presence in Zuberoa do not seem to exceed 200,000 years. These are the only references available so far for the longest cultural stage of Prehistory, the Lower Paleolithic (c. 3,000,000–125,000 BCE). They consist of a series of relatively large tools made from hard rocks, such as bifaces, pointed types…, found superficially on the fluvial terraces of the Saison and in the flysch hills of Lower Zuberoa. In the absence of stratigraphic context, evaluation of their morphotechnical attributes has suggested their industrial connection with the Upper Acheulean (c. 200,000–125,000 BCE). This is all that is known of these “ante-Neanderthals.”
The data on the Middle Paleolithic (c. 125,000–35,000 BCE) and the industrial complex that characterizes it in southwestern Europe, the Mousterian, are more solid. To certain surface finds of isolated pieces on these southern flysch hills and in some dolines of the Arbailla massif, one must now add contextualized references from the caves of Haregi (Altzürükü) and Gatzarria (Suhare).
At Haregi, a Mousterian level is preserved, characterized industrially by the presence of “Olha-type” scrapers. At Gatzarria, three additional levels were identified: an upper one, Cj, with Mousterian industries; a middle one, Cjr, including flake scrapers; and a lower one, Cr, with some Mousteroid forms. In all cases, they probably formed climatically during the first half of the Würm glaciation (Würm I, Würm I/II, Würm II, and the first development of Würm II/III). Tools made from various rocks (flint, quartzite, lydite, ophite…) in the form of scrapers, points, denticulates…, products derived from the knapping process (cores, flakes…), sometimes indicating specific strategies (centripetal, predetermined techniques…), bones and stones used as hammers or retouchers, fragments of hunted animals (deer, horse, chamois, bison…) – sometimes indicators of cold episodes (reindeer, woolly rhinoceros…) –, charcoals and burnt fragmented bones associated with hearths, reflect the stability of these sites chosen by Neanderthal-type populations.
It is noteworthy in both sites the presence of archaeological levels with large flake scrapers, types that distinguish the industrial facet of the Mousterian in the Pyrenean-Cantabrian context. With the full development of the Hengelo interstadial (Würm II/III), the genesis of the Upper Paleolithic (c. 35,000–8,500 BCE) occurs. Generally, a worsening of climatic conditions is observed, which decisively affects space occupation. Most of the Suletine Upper Paleolithic is organized around a geomorphological unit: the Arbailles massif (Arbailla). It is a limestone fold developed parallel to the Pyrenean axial axis, wedged the southern escarpments of Upper Zuberoa and the lower northern formations of Lower Zuberoa. Its contextual situation, likely favorable for a milder climate, easy access, richness in basic subsistence resources, and notable number of well-positioned cavities, made this area highly exploited by human groups of that cultural stage.
The caves of Gatzarria, Haregi, Etxeberriko Karbia, Sasiziloaga, and Sinhikola, which collectively illustrate the entirety of the Upper Paleolithic, are located in this Arbailla context. The Gatzarria site contains a significant stratigraphic deposit ing an original evolutionary process among the initial super-Paleolithic industrial complexes. From the Castelperronian, through the Proto-Aurignacian, and – already in Würm III – the Early Aurignacian, to the evolved Aurignacian, roughly corresponding to 35,000–27,000 BCE. Additionally, some Gravettian (c. 27,000–19,000 BCE) industrial evidence has been recovered in this cave. Technological and typological enrichment becomes progressively evident: substrate types (scrapers, denticulates…) and more advanced ones (burins, backed elements, scrapers…) are applied to longer, narrower, and flatter pieces, produced using advanced techniques (blades); bones and antlers are worked as tools, some ornamented, pendants on selected stones and bone supports, now forming part of the cultural repertoire inherited by these “Cro-Magnons,” who definitively replaced previous human types.
In the Franco-Cantabrian context, the middle phase of the Upper Paleolithic is represented by the Solutrean (c. 19,000–15,000 BCE), developed during the climatic improvement of the Würm III/IV interstadial following the extreme Würm IIIc. Gravette-type assemblages are characterized by lithic tools obtained through flat, peel-like retouching, foliaceous in appearance and flattened in module. One stratigraphic level at Haregi provides evidence of these Pyrenean-type “foliates.” Additionally, a sandstone plaque in the same cave preserves a magnificent engraving of a doe.
The final Upper Paleolithic coincides with regressive climatic oscillations at the end of the Würm glaciation during the Late Glacial or Würm IV, marking the end of the long Pleistocene. In this context, the Magdalenian industrial complexes (c. 15,000–8,500 BCE) succeed one another in the Pyrenean area, representing the peak of portable and parietal art.
In Zuberoa, no direct habitation sites of these populations have been recorded so far, but other evidence attests to human occupation of the territory by these “Western Pyreneans or Basques.” Three Suletine caves preserve, on their walls in deep and terminal zones, several artistic depictions. The “sanctuary” of Etxeberriko Karbia (Gamere-Zihiga) displays 15 horses, 2 bison, and 2 goats, associated with various signs uted using diverse techniques (black, red, and brown painting; engraving with a pointed instrument; digital impression). The nearby cave of Sasiziloaga (Suhare) preserves pictorial representations of the outlines of 2 bison and 1 sign on one’s belly, contemporary with the Etxeberri nucleus. Finally, in Sinhikola (Gamere-Zihiga), 1 horse and 2 bison outlines are associated with a less clearly interpretable painting. From a Franco-Cantabrian art perspective, the Suletine ensemble represents a transitional element western oceanic and eastern Central Pyrenean manifestations.
Throughout the Magdalenian, significant cave occupation by specialized hunter groups is observed in coastal and favorable inland zones. In the early transition to a milder climate – gradually approaching present-day conditions – future Epipaleolithic or Mesolithic (c. 8,500–4,500 BCE) industrial complexes begin to form, maintaining the same pattern of occupation. This first transitional phase is culturally represented by the Azilian (c. 8,500–7,000 BCE), with no recorded presence in Suletine lands to date.
The new climatic change characterizes essentially the Holocene. These Paleolithic “steppe hunter-gatherers” adapted their habits and needs to the new eco defined by forest expansion and suitable animal species. Hunting of deer, wild boar, horses, roe deer, goats… in their specific habitats, together with gathering of hazelnuts, acorns, berries…, fishing in rivers, and exploiting mollusks along coasts, constituted the food resources of Mesolithic “forest hunter-gatherers.” Material assemblages also underwent transformation: the progressive reduction in the size of knapped lithic types marks the microlithization process characteristic of the geometric Mesolithic (Sauveterrian and Tardenoisian, c. 7,000–4,500 BCE). The Ithelatseta shelter, a seasonal hunting station in the Arbailla massif, illustrates, with two occupation levels, the transition from the last Mesolithic hunters to the first Neolithic producers.
In general terms, the Neolithic (c. 4500–2500 BCE) is a cultural complex in which significant transformations occur across various domains. The first appearance of ceramic tools is accompanied by the development of new techniques in lithic tool processing (polishing), as well as profound changes in lifestyles (a trend toward agro-pastoralism in the overall production economy) and other aspects of material culture. In its final phase, a novel practice in funerary burials becomes widespread: individual interments are definitively replaced by collective formulas. In addition to caves and shelters used for this purpose, “ex-profeso” monuments, the dolmens, are erected for the first time.
In Zuberoa, the habitation sites of these peoples remain poorly known. Only a few stone tools (polished axes, scrapers, grinding stones…) discovered accidentally on the surface are documented, which would be difficult to distinguish, in any case, from assemblages of later cultural stages in the Early Metal Age (Chalcolithic and Bronze). Other indicators may, however, reveal the gradual and progressive process of Neolithic acculturation experienced by the predatory substrate societies.
From the relatively limited repertoire of controlled dolmens, it is known that some – such as the two at Ithé (Altzürükü), with substantial burial deposits: 50 and 30 individuals, of all ages and sexes – were constructed in the advanced Neolithic. Accompanying the first interred individuals was a set of artifacts including, among others, geometric flint armatures, decorative elements, pendants, pigments… Architecturally, the Suletine monuments notable similarities with others in the Peninsular Basque Country. However, the dolmens were used for an extended period – nearly two millennia – throughout the Chalcolithic and the first half of the Bronze Age. A similar pattern applies to collective sepulchral caves, which, from the late Neolithic onward, continued to be used until the end of prehistory, coexisting with dolmen practices. Amelestoi, Atxur Harpea, Betzüla, Kinta, Ustarbe… testify to this situation.
The first half of the Copper Age or Chalcolithic (c. 2500–1800 BCE) fully continues the Neolithic tradition regarding lifestyles, funerary practices, etc. There may now be an increased emphasis on open-air habitats based on huts and dwellings made of perishable materials. Lithic industrial assemblages include fine examples of stylized foliated pieces with bifacial retouches. The presence of ceramics and stone polishing becomes more noticeable. Initially, metal was unknown; only in the second half of this Chalcolithic complex does metallurgy appear.
The Bell Beaker period (c. 2200–1700 BCE) incorporates, alongside bell-shaped ceramic vessels richly decorated, a series of copper tools (points, daggers, needles…). Level 3 of the Ithé II dolmen provides such a set. Here, bell-shaped vessels with “international” and “corded” decoration are accompanied by bone buttons with V-shaped perforations, geometric flint armatures, a gold applique, and a sample of awls and pedunculate copper points.
Radiocarbon dating yielded 2050 ± 110 BCE. Behavior patterns similar to the Chalcolithic appear to have persisted throughout much of the Bronze Age (1800–900 BCE), with only industrial assemblages ing qualitative or quantitative variations. Bronze was introduced for the first time as a base metal for making points, daggers, and flat axes. Ceramic vessels proliferated in forms and decorative variety. Lithic tools remained present: fine examples of arrowheads with well-defined wings and peduncles appear in the archaeological record.
Traditional collective burial practices continued: while dolmens seem to have been definitively abandoned by the Middle Bronze Age (c. 1500–1200 BCE), sepulchral caves continued to be used. At this time, the Ithé dolmens were also used for burials, associated with various ceramic vessels with finger impressions and a small set of bronze objects (an awl, a sheet fragment, and two ring fragments).
At Ithé II, two burial levels were distinguished, with radiocarbon dates – 1660 ± 120 BCE for the lower, and 1560 ± 100 BCE for the upper – illustrating the monument’s final funerary reuse. It is in the terminal phases of this cultural complex, during the Late Bronze Age (c. 1200–900 BCE), that some changes in general dynamics begin to appear, a prelude to the imminent transformation and organization of space and society, which will occur throughout the last millennium BCE during the Iron Age or Protohistory. Gradually, settlements concentrated around strategic cores or defensive camps – the well-known “gazteluak” – with a particular internal organization. Metallurgy experienced a marked increase with the use and manufacture of iron, resulting in diversification of tools, significant technological advances in ceramic production, and consequential changes in the funerary world. A new ritual, cremation of the dead and deposition in original megalithic-based architectural structures, characterized this new cultural environment. Some monuments, such as the Millagate 5 tumulus-cromlech, may have begun to be erected during this terminal Bronze Age phase.
Most of the prehistoric collections are currently under the custody of the direct usufructuaries of the corresponding archaeological interventions. For bibliographic tracking, the first significant references are already gathered in J.M. Barandiarán’s synthesis El hombre prehistórico en el País Vasco (Buenos Aires, 1953). I. Barandiarán’s thesis, The Early Mesolithic of the Western Pyrenees. Bases for a atization of Paleolithic Bone Tools (Zaragoza, 1967), includes an exhaustive catalogue of those prehistoric sites documented in Euskal Herria up to the mid-1960s. A more up-to-date presentation, within the same context of Basque prehistory, appears in I. Barandiarán’s work Historia General de Euskalerria. Prehistoria. Paleolítico, in the Enciclopedia General Ilustrada del País Vasco, Auñamendi (San Sebastián, 1988).
In the collective synthesis texts on La Préhistoire française, arranged in three volumes (the first two from the Paleolithic to the Mesolithic, and the third from the Neolithic to the Iron Age), some references – in the corresponding article by R. Arambourou – pertain to the Upper Paleolithic sites of Soule. In that French framework, the atlas of prehistoric decorated caves L’Art des Cavernes (Paris, 1984) provides detailed coverage of Sasiziloaga (text by G. Laplace and P. Boucher), Etxeberri (text by G. Laplace, P. Boucher, M. Lauga, and E. de Valicourt), and Sinhikola (text by M.R. Séronie Vivien). For detailed information on specific sites (Gatzarria, Haregi…), consulting various articles authored by the excavation directors (G. Laplace, P. Boucher…), sometimes with the involvement of other specialists in auxiliary sciences (F. Lévêque, F. Lavaud…), published in specialized journals (Quartär, Ampurias, etc.), is essential.
Additionally, the Gallia Préhistoire series includes reports and partial notes on archaeological interventions. Finally, for the prehistory of Soule specifically, reference should be made to the recent work Le Pays de Soule (Baigorri, 1994), which includes a synthesis of the prehistoric panorama (compiled by D. Ebrard), as well as two specific texts on protohistoric manifestations (authored respectively by J. Blot and F. Gaudeul).
In Zuberoa, Dr J. Blot has catalogued a large number of burial mounds and cromlechs. Some of them were discovered by J. Miguel de Barandiarán, others by P. Boucher, D. Ebrard, C. Chauchat and J. Blot. They are found in the Irati Forest, in Organbidezka, Larrau, Egizuri, Millagate, Ibarrunda, Aussurucq, Ordiarp, etc. Listing them all would be excessive, but they can be consulted in the publications of the aforementioned researchers. The seven burial mounds of Ibarnaba and the ten of Ibarleta, in the Ibarnaba valley, in the place called Ezkirazi, are now ‘sites classés’ (protected areas). Burials were not only carried out in dolmens and burial mounds, but also in caves known as burial caves (research by D. Ebrard).
Dr Blot also points to the foundations of huts as vestiges of protohistory, having recorded more than 500 of them in Zuberoa. They are found at high altitudes, usually grouped together, in the same places as the kaiolar. They are round in shape and measure 8 and 12 metres in diameter. They were undoubtedly used to raise the branch or skin constructions of transhumant shepherds. They are generally found far from the inhabitants of the flatlands. Some of them were taken for burial mounds.